CHAPTER-3 EVOLUTION OF BUDDHISM.

For detailed explanation, watch my previous classes. Stay tuned for more upcoming classes.

For detailed Telugu notes and materials, please visit: https://manajournal.blogspot.com/

ORIGIN:

• In the post vedic times the condition of the shudras further deteriorated. The shudras were meant for serving the higher three varnas, and along with the women were barred from taking to vedic studies. Shudras were called cruel, greedy and thieving in habits, and some of them were treated as untouchables.

• The Kshatriya reaction against the domination of priestly class was one of the causes of origin of new religions.

• Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautam Buddha belonged to the Kshatriya clan and both disputed the authority of the Brahmanas.

• The spread of a new agricultural economy in north-eastern India is said to be the real cause of the rise of new religions. The agricultural economy based on iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks, and it could not flourish without animal husbandry. But the vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in the way of progress of agriculture. Now if the ‘new agrarian economy’ had to be stable, this killing had to be stopped.

• Vaishyas were the third in the varna hierarchy, so naturally they looked for some religion which would improve their position.

• Newer doctrines started propagating the idea of Moksha as the main aim of life in place of materialistic religion of the Vedas. This led to the religious transformation of the whole area and as many as 62 heterodox sects rose to the occasion.

• Some of the important sects were Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika and Charvaka.

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BUDDHISM:

1. Life of Buddha:

• Siddhartha was born in 563 BC in a Shakya Kshatriya family in Lumbini near Kapilavastu (Nepal).

• His father’s name was Shuddhodhana who was the chief of the Shakya clan.

• His mother’s name was Mahamaya or Mayadevi who was a princess of Koshalan dynasty. She died after seven days of his birth.

• He belonged to Shakya clan, hence called Shakya Muni.

• He was raised by his foster mother Gautami Prajapati. Hence, he was known as Gautama also.

• He was married to Yashodhara and Rahul was born to them.

• Despite having all luxuries at his command, Siddhartha did not keep happy. He was in search of complete bliss.

• Once, while travelling he witnessed four events viz. an old man, a sick man, a dead body and an ascetic which helped him taking the path of asceticism as the ascetic appeared to him the happier one.

• At the age of 29, he left his home on his horse Kantaka.

• He wandered in the region of Magadha for six years and practiced meditation during this time. He learned meditation from Alara Kalma.

• He got Enlightenment at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree on the bank of river Niranjana. Hence, he was called Buddha—one who has got Enlightenment.

• He delivered his first sermon to his five disciples at Deer Park in Sarnath. This is known as ‘setting in motion the wheel of law’.

• The five disciples were Assaji, Mogallana, Upali, Sanputta and Ananda.

• Most of the sermons were given at Shravasti.

• Four important events in the life of Buddha were Mahabhinishkraman, Nirvana, Chakra Pravarthan and Mahaparinirvana.

• He passed away at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kusinagar. He died of food poisoning after eating pork at the house of Chunda.

• After cremation, the ashes of Buddha were distributed among eight tribes. These ashes were kept in caskets and stupas were built over them e.g. Sanchi stupa.

• Last words of Buddha were “All composite things decay so strive diligently to work out your salvation”.

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2. Teachings of Buddhism:

• The fundamental principles of Buddha’s teachings are represented by the Four Noble Truths (arya-satyas)

(i) Dukkha (that the world is full of sorrow)

(ii) Dukkha samudaya (that there are causes of sorrow)

(iii) Dukkha Nirodha (that this sorrow can be stopped)

(iv) Dukkha nirodha-gamini pratipada (path leading to cessation of sorrow)

• According to Buddha, root of all human misery was ‘desire’ and its annihilation was the surest way of ending unhappiness.

• One could get out of this chain of suffering and achieve the final salvation (nirvana) by following the Eight Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga).

These Eight Fold Paths are:

(i) Right speech

(ii) Right action

(iii) Right means of livelihood

(iv) Right exertion

(v) Right mindfulness

(vi) Right meditation

(vii) Right resolution

(viii) Right view

• Buddha summarised the whole process in three words viz. Sila (right conduct), Samadhi (right concentration) and Prajna (right knowledge).

• Buddha advocated “The Middle Path” in which extremes are avoided.

• He rejected varna system and caste restrictions.

• Initially, he did not allow ‘women’ in Sangha but agreed later, on the advice of his chief disciple Ananda. His foster mother became the first woman to join Sangha.

• The followers of Buddha fell into two categories viz. the upasakas (lay followers) and the bhikshus (monks).

• Buddha was agnostic and non-commital to existence of god.

• The followers of Buddhism enjoyed equal rights irrespective of their varna and jati.

• Three vows of Buddhism are Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

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1. Buddhist Literature:

• It is also called Pali literature.

• Sutta Pitaka, Vinay Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka are known as the tripitakas of Buddhism.

• Tripitakas are the most important holy books of Buddhism.

• Sutta Pitaka consists of sermons and teachings of Buddha.

• Vinay Pitaka is the collection of the rules governing the sangha and monks.

• Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with the philosophy of Buddhism.

• A small part of Sutta Pitaka is Jataka Stories. There are 550 stories related to the birth of Buddha which are meant to give moral teachings to the people.

• Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are known as Ceylonese books. Ashoka sent his daughter and son to propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) where these books were compiled.

• Milindapanho is also an important book related to Buddhism. It is a collection of discussions between Indo-Greek king Menander (Milinda) and Monk Nagasena. Milinda posed several questions to Nagasena about Buddhism.

• Buddha Charita, a book written in Sanskrit is the biography of Buddha compiled by Ashvaghosh.

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1. Sects of Buddhism:

• There are three sects of Buddhism viz. Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana.

(i) Hinayana (lesser vehicle): It was an orthodox group. The teachings of Buddha shall be obeyed strictly. Hinayana emphasised individual salvation. They worshipped Buddha through symbols. No idol worship was allowed. This sect was mainly popular in Magadha, Sri Lanka and Burma.

(ii) Mahayana (greater vehicle): It was a sect with broader outlook. It followed the spirit of teachings of Buddha. They emphasised group salvation. They believed in semi-divine identity called Bodhisattva. They started worshipping Buddha through idols. They wrote scriptures in Sanskrit called Vaipulyasutras. Kanishka was the patron of Mahayana sect of Buddhism.

(iii) Vajrayana (vehicle of thunderbolt): It believed in super human powers. They had faith in miracles and tantra. It became popular in eastern India by 10th century AD. Palas patronised the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism.

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1. Buddhist Architecture:

• Stupa: It is a semi-domical structure. Ashoka constructed the most important stupa at Sanchi in MP.

• Chaityas: These are Buddhist temples constructed in caves e.g. chaityas at Karle near Nasik.

• Viharas: These are the buildings constructed for the residence of monks. The first Vihara was erected by Kumaragupta-I at Nalanda which was called Nalanda Mahavihara.

Buddhist Councils:

1st Buddhist Council:

• Time: 483 BC (immediately after Buddha’s death)
• Place: Rajagriha (Rajgir)
• King: Ajatashatru
• President: Mahakassapa
• Key Person: Ananda, Upali

Purpose & Outcome:

• To compile Buddha’s teachings
• Sutta Pitaka (teachings) recited by Ananda
• Vinaya Pitaka (rules) recited by Upali

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 2nd Buddhist Council:

• Time: 383 BC (after 100 years)
• Place: Vaishali
• King: Kalasoka

Purpose & Outcome:

• To settle disputes on monastic discipline
• Division of Buddhism into:
  • Sthaviravada (Orthodox)
  • Mahasanghika (Liberal)

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 3rd Buddhist Council:

• Time: 250 BC
• Place: Pataliputra
• King: Ashoka
• President: Moggaliputta Tissa

Purpose & Outcome:

• To purify Buddhism from corrupt practices
• Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka
• Spread of Buddhism to other countries (Sri Lanka, etc.)

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 4th Buddhist Council:

 There are two versions (important for exams)

(A) Sri Lanka Version:

• Time: 1st century BC
• Place: Alu Vihara (Sri Lanka)
• King: Vattagamani Abhaya

Outcome:

• Tripitakas were written down in Pali language

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(B) Kashmir Version

• Time: 1st century AD
• Place: Kashmir (Kundalvana)
• King: Kanishka
• President: Vasumitra

Outcome:

• Compilation of commentaries
• Growth of Mahayana Buddhism

Disclaimer

This content is prepared for educational and informational purposes only. The notes are simplified for better understanding and exam preparation (UPSC and State Exams). Readers are advised to refer to standard textbooks and official sources for detailed study.

CHAPTER 2.1 THE VADIC AGE (LATER VEDIC ARYANS)

 

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LATER VEDIC ARYANS:

1. Geographical area:

• The later vedic Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

• They entered the dense forests of the eastern region, cleared them and reached the modern day Bihar.

2. Polity:

• The political system of the later vedic Aryans shifted towards monarchy.

• The king now ruled over an area of land called Janapada.

• The king started maintaining army and the bureaucracy also got developed.

• The kingship was being given the status of divine origin. There was also emerging the concept of king of kings. Expressions like adhiraja, rajadhiraja, samrat and ekrat are used in most of texts.

• Atharvaveda defines ekrat to be the paramount sovereign.

• The vidatha completely disappeared. However the sabha and samiti continued to hold ground.

• Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmans.

• King performed the rajasuya sacrifice which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.

• He performed the ashvamedha sacrifice which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.

• He also performed vajapeya sacrifice or chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

• He started asking for tax which were deposited with an officer. The Sangrihita.

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3. Economy:

• Agriculture became primary occupation in later vedic times, though cattle rearing continued as secondary occupation.

• Shatapatha Brahmana speaks at length about the ploughing rituals.

• Rice (vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) became the chief crops of the later vedic aryans, though they continued to produce barley (yava).

• Few agricultural tools made of iron were used. Later vedic texts speak of six, eight, twelve and even twenty four oxen yoked to the plough.

• The plough was known as sira and the furrow was known as sita.

• Cow dung was used as manure.

• A new metal iron was introduced in the vedic age.

• It was known as shyam ayas and copper was known as lohita ayas.

• Weaving was confined to women but was practised on a wide scale. Leather work, pottery and carpenter’s work made great progress.

• The later vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery—black and red ware, black slipped ware, painted grey ware.

• The peasants produced enough to maintain themselves and they could also spare a marginal part of their produce for the support of chiefs, princes and priests

• Due to surplus production trading activities developed further. The system of borrowing and lending started in items of commodities only.

• The medium of exchange was the cow and some types of jewellery.

• Atharvaveda mentions that drought and excess rain threatened agriculture.

• Guilds of craftsman came into existence. Shreshthi was the head of guild.

4. Society:

• In later vedic period varna came to be birth based rather than profession based.

• The society came to be divided into four varnas called brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras.

Occupation Based Four Varnas

Teacher and priests .................. Brahmanas

Rulers, Administrators .............. Kshatriyas

Farmer, Merchant, Bankers ....... Vaishyas

Artisan and Labourers .............. Sudras

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Marriage Types:

A. Dharmya

Brahma – Arranged marriage between same classes; No dowry.

Daiva – Father gave his daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his (priest’s) fee.

Arsa – Token bride price in the form of a cow and a bull was paid to the daughter's father.

Prajapatya – Father gave the girl without dowry and without demanding bride price.

B. Adharmya

Gandharva – A sort of love marriage.

Asura – Marriage by purchase of bride.

Rakshasa – Girl abducted and forced to marry the boy against her wishes.

Paisacha – The modesty of girl was outraged when she was in sleep or was drunk or was mad.

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• All the three higher varnas were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the vedic mantras.

• The fourth varna (shudra) was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony and the recitation of the gayatri mantra.

• Women were generally given a lower position. They lost their political and religious rights during this period.

• The institution of gotra appeared in later vedic times. Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor. People began to practice gotra exogamy.

• In later vedic period four ashramas came into being viz. brahmachari (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (hermit) and sanyasin (ascetic) who completely renounced the worldly life.

• Incidents of polygamy and child marriage increased as compared to early vedic period.

• Joint families gave way to nuclear families which were male dominated.

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5. Religion:

• The two outstanding Rigvedic gods, Indra and Agni lost their former importance.

• The concept of trimurti emerged by which Prajapati (creator), Rudra (god of animals) and Vishnu (preserver and protector) came into being.

• Signs of idolatry appeared in later vedic period.

• Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god of the shudras, although in the age of Rigveda cattle rearing was the primary occupation of the Aryans.

• People worshipped gods for the same material reasons in this period as they did in early vedic period.

• Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode for placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important.

• Sacrifices involved the killing of animals on a large scale and specially the destruction of cattle wealth.

• The brahmanas claimed a monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise.

• In the later part of later vedic period began a strong reaction against the priestly domination against cults and rituals.

• Around this time the Upanishads were compiled which criticized the rituals and laid stress on the value of right belief and knowledge.

• Upanishads emphasized that the knowledge of the self or atman should be acquired and the relation of atman with brahma should be properly understood.

Hindu Schools of Philosophy:

• Sankhya is the oldest of all six systems of philosophy. It teaches the existence of 25 basic principles (tattva), prakriti (matter) being the first of all the principles. Kapila propounded the system of Sankhya.

• Yoga is probably the best known Hindu philosophical system in the world. Patanjali propounded the system of Yoga.

• The Vaisheshika system is a realistic, analytic and objective philosophy of the world. It classified all the objects under five elements, viz. earth, water, air, fire and ether. Kannada propounded the system of Vaisheshika.

• Nyaya system says salvation is attained through the acquisition of knowledge. Gautama propounded the system of Nyaya.

• Mimansa system recognises Vedas as the final authority in determining the duties of man. It is classified into two groups viz. Purva Mimansa of Jaimini and Uttara Mimansa of Vyasa

Disclaimer:

This content is prepared for educational and informational purposes only. The notes are simplified for better understanding and exam preparation (UPSC and State Exams). Readers are advised to refer to standard textbooks and official sources for detailed study

CHAPTER -2 The Vedic Age..

 

For detailed explanation, watch my previous classes. Stay tuned for more upcoming classes.

For detailed Telugu notes and materials, please visit: https://manajournal.blogspot.com/

The Vedic Age (1500–600 BC):

• Aryans are said to be propounders of Vedic civilization.
• They spoke a language called arya which was similar to later days Sanskrit. Hence, they are called Aryans.
• Central Asian theory of Max Muller is widely accepted theory of the origin of Aryans.

Views on Original Home of Aryans

• Europe — Sir W. Jones
• Central Asia — Max Muller
• Arctic Region — Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Tibet Region — Dayanand Saraswati
• The source of knowledge about the Aryans is the Vedic literature, of which Vedas are the most important. Veda means knowledge.
• The Vedas are not an individual religious work. The Vedic literature had grown in the course of many centuries and was handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Hence, they are called shruti.
• The Vedas are also called apaurusheya which means man did not compose them; and nitya which means they were existing in all eternity.

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VEDIC LITERATURE:

Vedic literature consists of four classes of literary creations, viz. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

The Vedas are collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. These are four in number.

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The Vedas:

• Rigveda — A collection of hymns
• Samaveda — A collection of songs
• Yajurveda — A collection of sacrificial formulae
• Atharvaveda — A collection of spells and charms

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VEDAS:

1. Rigveda:

• It was compiled around 1500–1000 BC.
• The literal meaning of the word rig is “praise”.
• It is a collection of hymns in praise of gods.
• It has been divided into ten volumes called Mandals.
• Mandal II to VII are the oldest books. They are also called family books because these are attributed to families of rishis.
• Mandal VIII and IX belong to middle time.
• Mandal I and X are the last to be compiled.
• Mandal III contains the Gayatri Mantra which was compiled in the praise of sun god Savitri.
• Mandal IX is dedicated only to Soma god, the Lord of Plants.
• Mandal X contains a hymn called Purusha Sukta in which origin of varna system is discussed.
• Those rishis who were experts in Rigveda were called hotra or hotri.
• The Rigveda has many things in common with Avesta which is the oldest text in Iranian language.

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2. Samaveda:

• It is a collection of songs mostly taken from the hymns of Rigveda and set to tune.
• It is a book of chants.
• The experts in the knowledge of Samaveda were called udgatri.
• Compilation of Samaveda is known to be the beginning of Indian music.
• Samaveda consists of 1810 hymns.

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3. Yajurveda:

• It is a collection of sacrificial formulae.
• It describes the rituals to be followed at the time of recitation of mantra.
• The experts in the knowledge of Yajurveda were called adhvaryu.
• It is found in both prose and poetry.
• It consists of two parts, viz. Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda.

4. Atharvaveda:

• It is a collection of charms and spells.
• It contains magical hymns to get relief from diseases.
• Indian medicinal science called Ayurveda has its origin from Atharvaveda.

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5. The Brahmanas:

• These are prose texts which contain details about the meanings of Vedic hymns, their applications, stories of their origins, etc.
• The Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas are assigned to the Rigveda; Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Samaveda; Taittiriya and Shatapatha Brahmanas to the Yajurveda; and Gopath Brahmanas to the Atharvaveda.
• Tandya Brahmana is the oldest of all the Brahmanas.
• Shatapatha Brahmana is the most voluminous among all the Brahmanas.

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6. The Aranyakas:

• These are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas.
• These were called Aranyakas because the mystical and philosophical character of their content required that they should be studied in the solitude of aranya (forest).
• They initiated a changeover from materialistic religion to spiritual religion. Thus, they formed a tradition that culminates in the Upanishads.
• Aranyakas are like a bridge between Vedas cum Brahmanas and Upanishads.

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7. The Upanishads:

• These are the last phase of Vedic literature.
• Upanishads deal with metaphysics i.e. philosophy.
• These are also called Vedanta because these were the last books to be compiled in the series of Vedic literature.
• These contain subject matter about soul, brahman, rebirth, theory of karma, etc.
• Upanishads emphasized the path of knowledge.
• The literal meaning of Upanishad is “to sit near the feet of”.
• The most important Upanishads are Chhandogya Upanishad and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
• The other important Upanishads are Katha Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Prasna Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, etc.
• The conversation of Yama and Nachiketa is the subject matter of Katha Upanishad.
• The word “satyameva jayate” in the National Emblem is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.

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VEDANGAS:

• The period after 600 BC is called Sutra period.
• Vedangas were compiled during this period. Hence, they are called Sutra literature.
• These are known as limbs of the Vedas, hence called Vedangas.
• These are six in number namely:

(i) Shiksha — Phonetics or Science of pronunciation

(ii) Kalpa — Rituals and ceremonies

(iii) Vyakarana — Grammar

(iv) Nirukta — Etymology (origin of words)

(v) Chhanda — Metrics, rules of poetic composition

(vi) Jyotisha — Astronomy

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Upvedas:

Name — Contents

• Gandharvaveda — Dance, drama, music
• Ayurveda — Medicine
• Shilpaveda — Art and architecture
• Dhanurveda — Art of warfare

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Ancient Rivers:

Rigvedic Names — Modern Names

• Sindhu — Indus
• Vitasta — Jhelum
• Asikni — Chenab
• Parushni — Ravi
• Vipasa — Beas
• Satudri — Sutlej
• Drishadvati — Ghaggar
• Krumu — Kurram
• Gomal — Gomati

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EARLY VEDIC ARYANS:

1. Geographical area:

• The early Aryans lived in the geographical area covered by eastern Afghanistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh.

• As per the Rigveda, the whole region in which the Aryans first settled in the Indian subcontinent is called saptasindhava region or the Land of the Seven Rivers.
• The Nadistuka hymn of Rigveda mentions 21 rivers serially beginning from east (Ganga) to the west (Kubha or Kabul).
• Rigveda also mentions about The Himalayas, Mujavant mountains and Samudra (ocean).
• Rigveda mentions Saraswati and Sindhu falling in the ocean. Saraswati was the most revered river in the Rigveda.
• Rigveda mentions four rivers of Afghanistan i.e. Kubha, Krumu, Gomati and Suvastu.
• As per the Rigveda the Battle of Ten Kings against Sudas (Bharata king of Tritsu family) was fought on the bank of river Parushni (Ravi) in which Sudas emerged victorious.
• Brahmavarta is the region between Yamuna and Sutlej, the Indus and its five tributaries and the Saraswati.
• Ganga and Yamuna were not the important rivers in the Rigvedic period.

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2. Polity:

• The polity of the early Vedic Aryans was basically a tribal polity with the tribal chief in the centre.
• The tribe was called jana and the tribal chief was called rajana.
• Rajana looked after the affairs of the tribe with the help of other tribal members and two tribal assemblies called Sabha and Samiti.
• Sabha was consisted of elder members of the tribe whereas the Samiti which mainly dealt with policy decisions and political business included common people.
• Women were allowed to participate in the proceedings of Sabha and Vidatha.
• In the day to day administrations, the king was assisted by a Purohita. Vasistha and Vishwamitra were the two important Purohitas.
• The king did not maintain any regular army or bureaucracy as there was no kingdom as such.
• Rajana used to get a voluntary offering called Bali.
• Rigvedic king did not rule over a kingdom, but over a tribe.

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3.Economy:

• The economy was a semi-nomadic pastoral economy based on pasture lands.
• Cattle rearing was the main occupation of the early Vedic Aryans.
• However, agriculture was also practised as a secondary occupation.
• Barley was the most important crop which was called yava. Wheat was a secondary crop.
• Cow was the most important animal of the Rigvedic Aryans.
• Rajana was also called Gopa which means protector of cows.
• The cow was the most important form of wealth. Thus, the medium of exchange was cow. Cow was also called aghanya (not to be killed).
• No currency was prevailing in the Rigvedic period.
• Rigvedic Aryans used the horses on a large scale which were absent in the Harappan culture.
• The term ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

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4. Religion:

• The most important divinity in the Rigveda is Indra, who is called Purandar (breaker of forts).
• Indra played the role of a warlord and he is also considered to be the rain god. 250 hymns are devoted to him in Rigveda.
• Agni was only next to Indra. He is the fire god to which 200 hymns are devoted. Agni acted as a kind of intermediary between the gods on the one hand, and the people on the other.

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Rigvedic Gods:

• Diti — Mother of the Daityas
• Usha — Goddess of Dawn
• Savitri — Stimulator or God of light
• Varuna — God of water, clouds, oceans, river and moral governor of deities
• Aditi — Goddess of Eternity
• Agni — Priest of God, Intermediary between God and Man
• Maruta — God of Storm
• Soma — God of plants
• Indra — Destroyer of enemies

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• The third important position is occupied by Varuna, who personified water.
• Soma was considered to be the god of plants and an intoxicating drink was named after him.
• The Rigvedic gods can be classified into three categories namely: Dyusthana (celestial), Antarikshasthana (aerial) and Prithvisthana (terrestrial).

• The Rigvedic Aryans did not worship gods for their spiritual uplift or for ending the miseries of existence. They asked mainly for praja (children), pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc.

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5. Society:

• Society was patriarchal and the eldest male of the kutumba was the head of the family.
• Rigvedic society comprised of four varnas based on occupation of individuals.
• Varna system based on birth was not prevailing in this period.
• The four varnas (brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra) were mentioned for the first time in the Purushsukta of Mandal X of Rigveda.
• Every member of same family was free to take any occupation.
• The smallest unit of society was family which was primarily monogamous and patriarchal.
• The niyoga system provided a childless widow could remarry the younger brother of her deceased husband for the sake of progeny.
• Child marriage was not in vogue.
• The father’s property was inherited by son. The daughter could inherit it, only if she was the only child of her parents.
• The system of joint family prevailed.

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???

• Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri.
• Vishnu was a less important god in early Vedic period.
• Agni is the only god who is regarded as present among all the categories of god.

Disclaimer:

This content is prepared for educational and informational purposes only. The notes are simplified for better understanding and exam preparation (UPSC and State Exams). Readers are advised to refer to standard textbooks and official sources for detailed study

CHAPTER-1 PRACTICE TEST Indus Valley Civilization

 

For detailed explanation, watch my previous classes. Stay tuned for more upcoming classes.

For detailed Telugu notes and materials, please visit: https://manajournal.blogspot.com/

Q1.

With reference to the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. It is also known as the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the first site excavated.
2. The excavation of Harappa was carried out under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni.
3. Harappa was excavated before Mohenjodaro.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 2 only

B) 2 and 3 only

C) 1 and 3 only

D) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: D

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Q2.

Consider the following pairs regarding the geographical extent of the Indus Valley Civilization:

1. Westernmost site – Sutkagendor
2. Easternmost site – Alamgirpur
3. Southernmost site – Daimabad
4. Northernmost site – Manda

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

A) 1, 2 and 3 only

B) 2 and 4 only

C) 1, 2, 3 and 4

D) 1 and 3 only

Answer: C

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Q3.

The Indus Valley Civilization is considered part of which of the following phases?

1. Bronze Age
2. Chalcolithic Age
3. Iron Age

Select the correct answer using the code below:

A) 1 only

B) 1 and 2 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: B

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Q4.

Which of the following civilizations were contemporary to the Indus Valley Civilization?

1. Mesopotamian Civilization
2. Egyptian Civilization
3. Chinese Civilization
4. Roman Civilization

Select the correct answer:

A) 1, 2 and 3 only

B) 2, 3 and 4 only

C) 1 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

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Q5.

Consider the following pairs of Harappan sites and rivers:

1. Harappa – Ravi
2. Mohenjodaro – Indus
3. Kalibangan – Ghaggar
4. Lothal – Narmada

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

A) 1, 2 and 3 only

B) 2 and 4 only

C) 1 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

(Lothal is on Sabarmati & Bhogava, not Narmada)

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Q6.

Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding Harappan sites?

1. Chanhudaro is located on the banks of the Indus River.
2. Banawali is associated with the Saraswati river system.
3. Rangpur is located on the banks of Meedar river.

Select the correct answer:

A) 1 and 2 only

B) 2 and 3 only

C) 1 and 3 only

D) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: D

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Q7.

With reference to the distribution of Harappan sites, consider the following statements:

1. The largest number of sites are found in Gujarat.
2. No Harappan sites are found in present-day Uttar Pradesh.
3. Harappan civilization was limited only to river valleys.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A) 1 only

B) 1 and 2 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: A

Q8.

With reference to Harappa, consider the following statements:

1. Rows of circular brick platforms used for threshing grain have been found.
2. Six granaries and sixteen fire altars (agnikundas) have been discovered.
3. The main entrance to houses generally faced the north direction.
4. Evidence of R-37 cemetery has been found.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 4 only

B) 1, 3 and 4 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: D

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Q9.

Consider the following statements regarding Mohenjodaro:

1. It was discovered by R. D. Banerji in 1922.
2. The term Mohenjodaro means “mound of the living.”
3. The Great Bath and bronze dancing girl statue were found here.
4. The city shows evidence of repeated destruction and rebuilding.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 3 and 4 only

B) 1 and 2 only

C) 2, 3 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

(Statement 2 is incorrect — it means “mound of the dead”)

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Q10.

With reference to Lothal, consider the following statements:

1. It was discovered by S. R. Rao.
2. A dockyard structure has been found here.
3. Evidence of bead-making factory has been discovered.
4. A bronze linear scale has been found at this site.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 2 only

B) 2, 3 and 4 only

C) 1, 2, 3 and 4

D) 1, 3 and 4 only

Answer: C

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Q11.

Consider the following statements regarding Kalibangan:

1. It had a highly developed drainage system similar to Mohenjodaro.
2. Evidence of ploughed agricultural field has been found.
3. It shows both pre-Harappan and Harappan phases.
4. Fire altars have been discovered here.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 2, 3 and 4 only

B) 1 and 2 only

C) 1, 3 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

(Statement 1 is incorrect — drainage system was not well developed)

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Q12.

With reference to Dholavira, consider the following statements:

1. It was discovered by J. P. Joshi.
2. It shows all three phases of Harappan civilization.
3. A signboard-like inscription with large letters has been found here.
4. It consists only of two parts—citadel and lower town.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 3 only

B) 2 and 4 only

C) 1, 3 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

(Statement 4 is incorrect — Dholavira has three divisions)

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Q13.

Consider the following statements about town planning in the Indus Valley Civilization:

1. Cities followed a grid or chessboard pattern.
2. Drainage systems were well developed with covered drains and manholes.
3. Cities were divided into citadel and lower town.
4. All Harappan cities strictly followed two-part division without exception.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 3 only

B) 2 and 4 only

C) 1 and 3 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

(Statement 4 is incorrect — Dholavira is an exception)

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Q14.

With reference to Harappan cultural features, consider the following statements:

1. Complete burial was the most common method of disposal of the dead.
2. Banawali and Kalibangan show two cultural phases.
3. Chanhudaro was the only city without a citadel.
4. Surkotada experienced only the mature Harappan phase.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 3 only

B) 1 and 4 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

(Statement 4 is incorrect — Surkotada had all three phases)

Q15.

With reference to agriculture in the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. Wheat and barley were the main crops grown.
2. Rice cultivation was widespread across all Harappan sites.
3. Evidence of plough has been found at Banawali.
4. The economy was purely agricultural with no trade activities.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 3 only

B) 1, 2 and 4 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 3 and 4 only

Answer: A

(Rice was limited; economy was agro-commercial, not purely agricultural)

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Q16.

Consider the following statements regarding animals in the Indus Valley Civilization:

1. The humpless bull was an important animal.
2. The Harappans had full knowledge of horses.
3. They were aware of animals like tiger, elephant and deer.
4. Lion was commonly depicted in Harappan art.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 3 only

B) 2 and 4 only

C) 1, 3 and 4 only

D) 1, 2 and 3 only

Answer: A

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Q17.

With reference to Harappan crafts, consider the following statements:

1. Harappans were familiar with iron technology.
2. They used bronze to make tools and weapons.
3. The potter’s wheel was used for making pottery.
4. Silk production was well known to them.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 4 only

B) 2 and 3 only

C) 2, 3 and 4 only

D) 1, 2 and 3 only

Answer: B

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Q18.

Consider the following statements regarding Harappan seals:

1. Seals were mainly made of steatite.
2. Most seals are rectangular in shape.
3. The bull is the most commonly depicted animal.
4. Cow is frequently depicted on seals.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 3 only

B) 1, 2 and 3 only

C) 2 and 4 only

D) 1, 3 and 4 only

Answer: A

(Seals are mostly square; cow is not depicted)

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Q19.

With reference to trade during the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. Both land and sea trade were practiced.
2. The most important trading partner was Mesopotamian Civilization.
3. Trade was conducted using metallic coins.
4. Meluha was the name used by Mesopotamians for the Indus region.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 4 only

B) 1 and 3 only

C) 2 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

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Q20.

Consider the following statements regarding Harappan religion:

1. The Pashupati Seal suggests proto-Shiva worship.
2. Evidence of Mother Goddess worship has been found.
3. Temples were the central feature of Harappan cities.
4. The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro was used for ritual bathing.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 4 only

B) 1 and 3 only

C) 2, 3 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

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Q21.

With reference to Harappan trade networks, consider the following:

1. Dilmun served as an intermediate trading station.
2. Makan was associated with trade routes.
3. Lothal had a dockyard indicating maritime trade.
4. Trade was conducted mainly through a barter system.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 3 only

B) 2 and 4 only

C) 1, 3 and 4 only

D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: D

Q22.

With reference to the script of the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. The script is mainly pictographic in nature.
2. It has been completely deciphered.
3. It consists of around 400 symbols including variants.
4. It is purely alphabetical in structure.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 3 only

B) 1, 2 and 4 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 3 and 4 only

Answer: A

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Q23.

Consider the following statements regarding Harappan writing:

1. About 4,000 specimens of writing have been found.
2. The script is found mainly on seals and other objects.
3. All symbols in the script are original and unique.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 2 only

B) 2 and 3 only

C) 1 and 3 only

D) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: A

(Only about 75 symbols are original; others are variants)

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Q24.

With reference to the Harappan script, consider the following statements:

1. It is undeciphered till date.
2. It contains both original symbols and their variants.
3. It resembles modern alphabetic scripts in structure.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 only

B) 1 and 2 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: B

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Q25.

Consider the following historians and their views regarding the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:

1. Mortimer Wheeler – Aryan invasion theory
2. G. F. Dales – Aryans responsible
3. John Marshall – Natural calamities

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

A) 1 and 3 only

B) 1, 2 and 3

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1 only

Answer: A

(Dales rejected Aryan invasion theory)

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Q26.

With reference to theories of decline of Harappan civilization, consider the following statements:

1. Aryan invasion theory was proposed by Mortimer Wheeler.
2. G. F. Dales opposed Aryan invasion theory.
3. Natural calamities theory is widely accepted.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 2 only

B) 2 and 3 only

C) 1, 2 and 3

D) 1 and 3 only

Answer: C

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Q27.

Consider the following statements regarding Harappan script:

1. It is primarily pictographic.
2. It has been deciphered using bilingual inscriptions.
3. It consists of limited symbols compared to Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 only

B) 1 and 3 only

C) 2 and 3 only

D) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: B

(No bilingual inscriptions; script remains undeciphered)

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Q28.

Which of the following statements best explains the uncertainty regarding the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization?

A) Lack of archaeological evidence

B) Absence of written records due to undeciphered script

C) Contradictory theories by historians

D) Both B and C

Answer: D