Smart learning centre : CHAPTER -2 The Vedic Age..

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The Vedic Age (1500–600 BC):

Aryans are said to be propounders of Vedic civilization.
They spoke a language called arya which was similar to later days Sanskrit. Hence, they are called Aryans.
Central Asian theory of Max Muller is widely accepted theory of the origin of Aryans.

Views on Original Home of Aryans

Europe — Sir W. Jones
Central Asia — Max Muller
Arctic Region — Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Tibet Region — Dayanand Saraswati
The source of knowledge about the Aryans is the Vedic literature, of which Vedas are the most important. Veda means knowledge.
The Vedas are not an individual religious work. The Vedic literature had grown in the course of many centuries and was handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Hence, they are called shruti.
The Vedas are also called apaurusheya which means man did not compose them; and nitya which means they were existing in all eternity.

VEDIC LITERATURE:

Vedic literature consists of four classes of literary creations, viz. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

The Vedas are collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. These are four in number.

The Vedas:

Rigveda — A collection of hymns
Samaveda — A collection of songs
Yajurveda — A collection of sacrificial formulae
Atharvaveda — A collection of spells and charms

VEDAS:

1. Rigveda:

It was compiled around 1500–1000 BC.
The literal meaning of the word rig is “praise”.
It is a collection of hymns in praise of gods.
It has been divided into ten volumes called Mandals.
Mandal II to VII are the oldest books. They are also called family books because these are attributed to families of rishis.
Mandal VIII and IX belong to middle time.
Mandal I and X are the last to be compiled.
Mandal III contains the Gayatri Mantra which was compiled in the praise of sun god Savitri.
Mandal IX is dedicated only to Soma god, the Lord of Plants.
Mandal X contains a hymn called Purusha Sukta in which origin of varna system is discussed.
Those rishis who were experts in Rigveda were called hotra or hotri.
The Rigveda has many things in common with Avesta which is the oldest text in Iranian language.

2. Samaveda:

It is a collection of songs mostly taken from the hymns of Rigveda and set to tune.
It is a book of chants.
The experts in the knowledge of Samaveda were called udgatri.
Compilation of Samaveda is known to be the beginning of Indian music.
Samaveda consists of 1810 hymns.

3. Yajurveda:

It is a collection of sacrificial formulae.
It describes the rituals to be followed at the time of recitation of mantra.
The experts in the knowledge of Yajurveda were called adhvaryu.
It is found in both prose and poetry.
It consists of two parts, viz. Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda.

4. Atharvaveda:

It is a collection of charms and spells.
It contains magical hymns to get relief from diseases.
Indian medicinal science called Ayurveda has its origin from Atharvaveda.

5. The Brahmanas:

These are prose texts which contain details about the meanings of Vedic hymns, their applications, stories of their origins, etc.
The Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas are assigned to the Rigveda; Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Samaveda; Taittiriya and Shatapatha Brahmanas to the Yajurveda; and Gopath Brahmanas to the Atharvaveda.
Tandya Brahmana is the oldest of all the Brahmanas.
Shatapatha Brahmana is the most voluminous among all the Brahmanas.

6. The Aranyakas:

These are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas.
These were called Aranyakas because the mystical and philosophical character of their content required that they should be studied in the solitude of aranya (forest).
They initiated a changeover from materialistic religion to spiritual religion. Thus, they formed a tradition that culminates in the Upanishads.
Aranyakas are like a bridge between Vedas cum Brahmanas and Upanishads.

7. The Upanishads:

These are the last phase of Vedic literature.
Upanishads deal with metaphysics i.e. philosophy.
These are also called Vedanta because these were the last books to be compiled in the series of Vedic literature.
These contain subject matter about soul, brahman, rebirth, theory of karma, etc.
Upanishads emphasized the path of knowledge.
The literal meaning of Upanishad is “to sit near the feet of”.
The most important Upanishads are Chhandogya Upanishad and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
The other important Upanishads are Katha Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Prasna Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, etc.
The conversation of Yama and Nachiketa is the subject matter of Katha Upanishad.
The word “satyameva jayate” in the National Emblem is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.

VEDANGAS:

The period after 600 BC is called Sutra period.
Vedangas were compiled during this period. Hence, they are called Sutra literature.
These are known as limbs of the Vedas, hence called Vedangas.
These are six in number namely:

(i) Shiksha — Phonetics or Science of pronunciation

(ii) Kalpa — Rituals and ceremonies

(iii) Vyakarana — Grammar

(iv) Nirukta — Etymology (origin of words)

(v) Chhanda — Metrics, rules of poetic composition

(vi) Jyotisha — Astronomy

Upvedas:

Name — Contents

Gandharvaveda — Dance, drama, music
Ayurveda — Medicine
Shilpaveda — Art and architecture
Dhanurveda — Art of warfare

Ancient Rivers:

Rigvedic Names — Modern Names

Sindhu — Indus
Vitasta — Jhelum
Asikni — Chenab
Parushni — Ravi
Vipasa — Beas
Satudri — Sutlej
Drishadvati — Ghaggar
Krumu — Kurram
Gomal — Gomati

EARLY VEDIC ARYANS:

1. Geographical area:

The early Aryans lived in the geographical area covered by eastern Afghanistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh.

As per the Rigveda, the whole region in which the Aryans first settled in the Indian subcontinent is called saptasindhava region or the Land of the Seven Rivers.
The Nadistuka hymn of Rigveda mentions 21 rivers serially beginning from east (Ganga) to the west (Kubha or Kabul).
Rigveda also mentions about The Himalayas, Mujavant mountains and Samudra (ocean).
Rigveda mentions Saraswati and Sindhu falling in the ocean. Saraswati was the most revered river in the Rigveda.
Rigveda mentions four rivers of Afghanistan i.e. Kubha, Krumu, Gomati and Suvastu.
As per the Rigveda the Battle of Ten Kings against Sudas (Bharata king of Tritsu family) was fought on the bank of river Parushni (Ravi) in which Sudas emerged victorious.
Brahmavarta is the region between Yamuna and Sutlej, the Indus and its five tributaries and the Saraswati.
Ganga and Yamuna were not the important rivers in the Rigvedic period.

2. Polity:

The polity of the early Vedic Aryans was basically a tribal polity with the tribal chief in the centre.
The tribe was called jana and the tribal chief was called rajana.
Rajana looked after the affairs of the tribe with the help of other tribal members and two tribal assemblies called Sabha and Samiti.
Sabha was consisted of elder members of the tribe whereas the Samiti which mainly dealt with policy decisions and political business included common people.
Women were allowed to participate in the proceedings of Sabha and Vidatha.
In the day to day administrations, the king was assisted by a Purohita. Vasistha and Vishwamitra were the two important Purohitas.
The king did not maintain any regular army or bureaucracy as there was no kingdom as such.
Rajana used to get a voluntary offering called Bali.
Rigvedic king did not rule over a kingdom, but over a tribe.

3.Economy:

The economy was a semi-nomadic pastoral economy based on pasture lands.
Cattle rearing was the main occupation of the early Vedic Aryans.
However, agriculture was also practised as a secondary occupation.
Barley was the most important crop which was called yava. Wheat was a secondary crop.
Cow was the most important animal of the Rigvedic Aryans.
Rajana was also called Gopa which means protector of cows.
The cow was the most important form of wealth. Thus, the medium of exchange was cow. Cow was also called aghanya (not to be killed).
No currency was prevailing in the Rigvedic period.
Rigvedic Aryans used the horses on a large scale which were absent in the Harappan culture.
The term ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

4. Religion:

The most important divinity in the Rigveda is Indra, who is called Purandar (breaker of forts).
Indra played the role of a warlord and he is also considered to be the rain god. 250 hymns are devoted to him in Rigveda.
Agni was only next to Indra. He is the fire god to which 200 hymns are devoted. Agni acted as a kind of intermediary between the gods on the one hand, and the people on the other.

Rigvedic Gods:

Diti — Mother of the Daityas
Usha — Goddess of Dawn
Savitri — Stimulator or God of light
Varuna — God of water, clouds, oceans, river and moral governor of deities
Aditi — Goddess of Eternity
Agni — Priest of God, Intermediary between God and Man
Maruta — God of Storm
Soma — God of plants
Indra — Destroyer of enemies

The third important position is occupied by Varuna, who personified water.
Soma was considered to be the god of plants and an intoxicating drink was named after him.
The Rigvedic gods can be classified into three categories namely: Dyusthana (celestial), Antarikshasthana (aerial) and Prithvisthana (terrestrial).

The Rigvedic Aryans did not worship gods for their spiritual uplift or for ending the miseries of existence. They asked mainly for praja (children), pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc.

5. Society:

Society was patriarchal and the eldest male of the kutumba was the head of the family.
Rigvedic society comprised of four varnas based on occupation of individuals.
Varna system based on birth was not prevailing in this period.
The four varnas (brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra) were mentioned for the first time in the Purushsukta of Mandal X of Rigveda.
Every member of same family was free to take any occupation.
The smallest unit of society was family which was primarily monogamous and patriarchal.
The niyoga system provided a childless widow could remarry the younger brother of her deceased husband for the sake of progeny.
Child marriage was not in vogue.
The father’s property was inherited by son. The daughter could inherit it, only if she was the only child of her parents.
The system of joint family prevailed.

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Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri.
Vishnu was a less important god in early Vedic period.
Agni is the only god who is regarded as present among all the categories of god.

Disclaimer:

This content is prepared for educational and informational purposes only. The notes are simplified for better understanding and exam preparation (UPSC and State Exams). Readers are advised to refer to standard textbooks and official sources for detailed study

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Monday, April 27, 2026

CHAPTER -2 The Vedic Age..